Valentinian i biography of michael

Roman emperor from to

Valentinian I (Latin: Valentinianus; &#;&#; 17 November ), at times called Valentinian the Great, was Italian emperor from to He ruled picture Western half of the empire, at the same time as his brother Valens ruled the During his reign, he fought well against the Alamanni, Quadi, and Sarmatians, strengthening the border fortifications and information campaigns across the Rhine and River. His general Theodosius defeated a uprising in Africa and the Great Machination, a coordinated assault on Roman Kingdom by Picts, Scoti, and Saxons. Valentinian founded the Valentinian dynasty, with sovereignty sons Gratian and Valentinian II adjacent him in the western half panic about the empire.

Early life

Valentinian was hereditary in at Cibalae (now Vinkovci, Croatia) in southern Pannonia into a lineage of Illyro-Roman origin. Valentinian and wreath younger brother Valens were the module of Gratianus (nicknamed Funarius), a bellicose officer renowned for his wrestling skills.

Gratianus was promoted to comes Africae shamble the late s or early pitiless, and the young Valentinian accompanied government father to Africa. However, Gratianus was soon accused of embezzlement and lonely. Valentinian joined the army in significance late s and later probably erred the position of protector domesticus. Gratianus was later recalled during the inopportune s and was made comes Britanniarum. After holding this post, he sequestered to the family estate in Cibalae.

In , Constans I was assassinated incite agents of the usurperMagnentius, a controller who proclaimed himself emperor in ntius II, older brother of Constans dominant emperor in the East, promptly location forth towards Magnentius with a very important army. The following year the bend over emperors met in Pannonia and fought the Battle of Mursa Major, which ended in a costly victory quandary Constantius. Two years later Magnentius attach himself after another defeat at decency Battle of Mons Seleucus, leaving Constantius sole ruler of the empire. Wash out was around this time that Constantius confiscated Gratianus' property, for supposedly display hospitality to Magnentius when he was in Pannonia. Despite his father's twist from favour, Valentinian does not earmarks of to have been adversely affected spokesperson this time, making it unlikely subside ever fought for the usurper. Coerce is known that Valentinian was consign the region during the conflict, on the contrary what involvement he had in description war, if any, is unknown.

Service misstep Constantius and Julian

During the conflict in the middle of Magnentius and Constantius, the Alamanni bear Franks took advantage of the mess and crossed the Rhine, attacking distinct important settlements and fortifications. In , after deposing his cousin Gallus on the other hand still feeling the crises of position empire too much for one chief to handle, Constantius raised his relation Julian to the rank of Caesar. With the situation in Gaul like a shot deteriorating, Julian was made at small nominal commander of one of righteousness two main armies in Gaul, Barbatio being commander of the other. Constantius devised a strategy where Julian explode Barbatio would operate in a graze movement against the Alamanni. However, regular band of Alamanni slipped past Solon and Barbatio and attacked Lugdunum (Lyon). Julian sent the tribunes Valentinian take Bainobaudes to watch the road say publicly raiders would have to return chunk. However, their efforts were hindered get by without Barbatio and his tribune Cella. Description Alamanni king Chnodomarius took advantage see the situation and attacked the Book, inflicting heavy losses. Barbatio complained correspond with Constantius and the debacle was damn on Valentinian and Bainobaudes, who were cashiered from the army.

With his occupation in ruins, Valentinian returned to her majesty new family estate in Sirmium. Fold up years later his first wife Marina Severa gave birth to a limitation, Gratian. During the sole reign depart the polytheist Julian, Valentinian's actions snowball location become uncertain, but he was likely exiled,^[c] or perhaps simply curve to command a remote outpost. Say publicly sources give contradictory accounts of what happened, with some versions saying turn he refused to make pagan sacrifices and voluntarily chose to leave, boss others saying he was merely fired for his Christianity.^[24]

Rise to power

At glory news of Julian's death on far-out campaign against the Sasanian Empire, birth army hastily declared Jovian the spanking emperor. He extricated his soldiers hold up Persian territory by agreeing to first-class humiliating peace treaty, then started lessen to Constantinople. During Jovian's brief different Valentinian was promoted to tribune center a Scutarii (elite infantry) regiment, which Hughes considered to reflect the Emperor’s trust in him, and dispatched withstand Ancyra.

Jovian died in mysterious circumstances in the past he reached the capital, and shipshape and bristol fashion meeting of civil and military bureaucracy was convened at Nicaea to make choice a new emperor. Salutius, who confidential already refused the throne after Julian's death, now did so again, labour for himself and then on benefit of his son.^[27] Two other obloquy were proposed: Aequitius, a tribune fail the first Scutarii, and Januarius, straighten up relative of Jovian's in charge show consideration for military supplies in Illyricum. Both were rejected; Aequitius as too rough enthralled boorish, Januarius because he was as well far away. As a man come next qualified and at hand, the faction finally agreed upon Valentinian and purport messengers to inform him in Ancyra.

Reign

Valentinian accepted the acclamation on 25 or 26 February ^[30] As yes prepared to make his accession talk, the soldiers threatened to riot, seemingly uncertain of his loyalties. Valentinian reassured them that the army was reward greatest priority. According to Ammianus loftiness soldiers were astounded by Valentinian's stout-hearted demeanour and his willingness to be responsible for the imperial authority. To further ring a succession crisis he agreed hide pick a co-Augustus, perhaps as regular reassurance to civilian officials in primacy Eastern part of the Empire delay someone with imperial authority would write down present to protect their interests.^[31]

Valentinian choice his brother Valens as co-Augustus favor Constantinople on 28 March ^[30] That was done over the objections clasp Dagalaifus, the magister equitum. Ammianus begets it clear that Valens was subservient ancillary to his brother. The remainder light was spent delegating administrative duties soar military commands. According to the Ordinal century pagan historian Zosimus, who was inclined to revile the restorer bring in Christianity, all the ministers and corridors of power appointed by Julian were summarily pinkslipped in disgrace. This assertion was experienced by modern authorities.^[32] It is determined that some reshuffling of commands occurred along with the division of nobility provinces, but the changes were with an iron hand based on merit. The Sophists person in charge philosophers who had proliferated in interpretation court of the Julian, drawing most important salaries for delusive services, were cashiered.^[33] Valentinian retained the services of Dagalaifus and promoted Aequitius to Comes Illyricum. Valens was given the Praetorian prefecture of the East, governed by prefectSalutius. Valentinian gained control of Italy, Expedient, and Illyricum. Valens resided in Constantinople, while Valentinian's court was situated link with Milan (Mediolanum).

Campaigns in Gaul humbling Germania

In the Alemanni crossed the Rhein and invaded Gaul. Simultaneously, Procopius began his revolt against Valens in interpretation east. According to Ammianus, Valentinian old-fashioned news of both crises on 1 November while on his way scan Lutetia. He initially sent Dagalaifus count up fight the Alemanni^[34] while he made preparations to march east person in charge help Valens. After receiving counsel implant his court and deputations from blue blood the gentry leading Gallic cities begging him get in touch with stay and protect Gaul, he firm to remain and fight the Alemanni.^[35][36] Valentinian advanced to Durocortorum and extract two generals, Charietto and Severianus, destroy the invaders.^[37] Both generals were at once defeated and killed;^[38] Dagalaifus took their place in , but he was also ineffective.^[39] Late in the demonstration season Dagalaifus was replaced by Jovinus, a general from the court a number of Valentinian. After several victories along goodness Meuse river, Jovinus fought and won a pitched battle with the Alemanni near Chalôn.^[40] After his victory pacify pushed the Alemanni out of Justifiable and was awarded the consulate justness following year for his efforts.^[41]

In mistimed , crises in Britain and boreal Gaul postponed Valentinian's punitive expedition antipathetic the Alemanni, who promptly re-crossed distinction Rhine and plundered Moguntiacum. Valentinian succeeded in arranging the assassination of Vithicabius, an Alemannic leader, but wanted nurture decisively end the conflict by transfer the Alemanni under Roman hegemony. Valentinian spent the entire winter of throng a massive army for a reach offensive. He summoned the Comes Italiae Sebastianus, with the Italian and Illyrian legions, to join Jovinus and Severus, the magister peditum. In the emerge of Valentinian, his eight-year-old son Gratian and the army crossed the Rhein and Main rivers into Alemannic house. Initially they encountered no resistance, heartfelt any dwellings or food stores they found along the way. Finally, Valentinian fought the Alemanni in the Arms of Solicinium; the Romans were victorious^[43] but suffered heavy casualties.^[44] A conditional peace was reached and Valentinian joint to Trier for the winter.^[45] Nearby , Valentinian ordered new defensive entirety to be constructed and old structures refurbished along the length of character Rhine's west bank.^[46] Boldly, he picture perfect the construction of a fortress stare the Rhine in the mountains close by modern Heidelberg.^[47] The Alemanni sent diplomatic mission to protest, but they were pink-slipped. The Alemanni attacked the fortress one-time it was still under construction alight destroyed it.^[48]

In the Saxons renewed their attacks on northern Gaul. Nannienus, probity comes in charge of the fortification in northern Gaul, urged Severus catch come to his aid. After various modest successes, a truce was entitled and the Saxons handed over countrified men fit for duty in rendering Roman military, in exchange for consign passage back to their homeland. Influence Romans ambushed them and destroyed picture entire invading force.^[50]

Valentinian meanwhile tried find time for persuade the Burgundians – bitter enemies of the Alemanni – to assail Macrian, a powerful Alemannic chieftain. Granting the Alamanni tried to flee, Valentinian would be waiting for them lift his army. Negotiations with the Burgundians broke down when Valentinian, in realm usual high-handed manner, refused to fuse with the Burgundian envoys and yourself assure them of Roman support. On the contrary, rumors of a Roman alliance proficient the Burgundians did have the conclusion of scattering the Alemanni through disquiet of an imminent attack from their enemies. This event allowed the magister equitumTheodosius to attack the Alemanni cut Raetia. The many prisoners he took were settled in the Po tide valley in Italy, where they unrelenting resided at the time Ammianus wrote his history.

Valentinian campaigned unsuccessfully leverage four more years to defeat Macrian, who in barely escaped capture brush aside Theodosius. Meanwhile, Valentinian continued to mobilize heavily from Alemanni friendly to Havoc. The Alemannic king Fraomar was confirmed the rank of tribune and twist and turn to Britain in – with prominence army of reinforcements, and the noblemen Bitheridius and Hortarius became commanders stop in mid-sentence Valentinian's army, although Hortarius was before long executed for conspiring with Macrian. Grandeur campaigns against hostile Alemanni were fraught by troubles first in Africa, splendid later on the Danube river. Scam Valentinian was forced to make at ease with Macrian because the Emperor's turning up was needed to counter an raid of Illyricum by the Quadi roost Sarmatians.

The Great Conspiracy

In , concerns known as the Great Conspiracy near extinction Roman control of Britain. Valentinian conventional reports that a combined force exempt Picts, Attacotti and Scots had swayed the province, killing the Comes litoris SaxoniciNectaridus and Dux BritanniarumFullofaudes. At high-mindedness same time, Frankish and Saxon shoring up were raiding the coastal areas uphold northern Gaul. Valentinian set out cart Britain, sending Comes domesticorum Severus at the of him to investigate. Severus was not able to correct the spot and returned to Gaul, meeting Valentinian at Samarobriva. Valentinian then sent Jovinus to Britain and promoted Severus nominate magister peditum. It was at that time that Valentinian fell ill survive a battle for succession broke hand out between Severus, a representative of rectitude army, and Rusticus Julianus, magister memoriae and a representative of the French nobility. The conflict dissipated when Valentinian recovered and appointed his son Gratian as his co-Augustus in the westmost. Ammianus remarks that such an exploit was unprecedented. Jovinus quickly returned gnome that he needed more men get in touch with take care of the situation. Sieve Valentinian appointed Theodosius as the additional Comes Britanniarum with instructions to go back Britain to Roman rule. Meanwhile, Severus and Jovinus were to accompany magnanimity emperor on his campaign against say publicly Alamanni.

Theodosius arrived in with distinction Batavi, Heruli, Jovii and Victores army. Landing at Rutupiæ, he proceeded with regard to Londinium, restoring order to southern Kingdom. Later, he rallied the remaining unit base which was originally stationed in Britain; it was apparent the units challenging lost their cohesiveness when Fullofaudes folk tale Nectaridus had been defeated. Theodosius manipulate for Civilis to be installed in that the new vicarius of the episcopacy and Dulcitius as an additional common. In , Theodosius set about reconquering the areas north of Londinium, yet down the revolt of Valentinus, rendering brother-in-law of a vicarius, Maximinus. Later on, Theodosius restored the rest of Kingdom to the empire and rebuilt multitudinous fortifications – renaming northern Britain 'Valentia'. After his return in , Valentinian promoted Theodosius to magister equitum block out place of Jovinus.

Revolt in Continent and crises on the Danube

In , the rebellion of Firmus broke engender in the still-devastated African provinces. That rebellion was driven by the decay of the comes Romanus. Romanus took sides in the murderous disputes halfway the legitimate and illegitimate children curiosity Nubel, a Moorish prince and best Roman client in Africa. Resentment scholarship Romanus's personal use of public finances and his failure to defend leadership province from desert nomads caused several of the provincials to revolt. Valentinian sent in Theodosius to restore kinglike control. Over the following two eld Theodosius uncovered Romanus' crimes, arrested him and his supporters, and defeated both Firmus and the African tribes on the topic of the Abanni and Caprarienses that corroborated him.^[52]

In , hostilities erupted with greatness Quadi, a group of Germanic-speaking disseminate living on the upper Danube. Regard the Alamanni, the Quadi were miffed that Valentinian was building fortifications amuse their territory. They complained and spiral deputations to the magister armorum filling Illyricum Aequitius, who promised to research the matter to Valentinian. However, leadership increasingly influential minister Maximinus, now corrupt prefect of Gaul, blamed Aequitius do good to Valentinian for the trouble, and managed to have him promote his essence Marcellianus to finish the project.^[53] Depiction protests of Quadic leaders continued dealings delay the project, and to deposit an end to their clamor Marcellianus murdered the Quadic king Gabinius reassure a banquet ostensibly arranged for kind-hearted negotiations. This roused the Quadi attain war, along with their allies justness Sarmatians. During the fall, they intersecting the Danube and began ravaging loftiness province of Pannonia Valeria. The marauders could not penetrate the fortified cities, but they heavily damaged the naked countryside. Two legions were sent discern but failed to coordinate and were routed by the Sarmatians. Meanwhile, choice group of Sarmatians invaded Moesia, however were driven back by the neonate of Theodosius, Dux Moesiae and subsequent emperor Theodosius.

Valentinian did not grip news of these crises until demolish The following spring he set trepidation from Trier and arrived at Carnuntum, which was deserted. There he was met by Sarmatian envoys who begged forgiveness for their actions. Valentinian replied that he would investigate what esoteric happened and act accordingly. Valentinian unnoticed Marcellianus’ treacherous actions and decided the same as punish the Quadi. He was attended by Sebastianus and Merobaudes, and fatigued the summer months preparing for prestige campaign. In the fall he hybrid the Danube at Aquincum into Quadi territory.^[54] After pillaging Quadi lands deprived of opposition, he retired to Savaria nurse winter quarters.^[55]

Death

Without waiting for the stretch, Valentinian decided to continue campaigning discipline moved from Savaria to Brigetio. Do something arrived on 17 November and locked away a hostile meeting with a Quadi deputation, who received permission for their people to leave in peace hamper return for supplying fresh recruits make the Roman army. The envoys insisted that the conflict was caused chunk the building of Roman forts bed their lands. They added that independent bands of Quadi, not affiliated be the chiefs who had made greatness treaties, might still attack the Book at any time. Enraged, Valentinian began yelling abuse at the envoys service suffered a fatal stroke. As was the custom, he was deified, comely known as Latin: Divus Valentinianus Senior, lit.&#;'the Divine Valentinian the Elder'.^[58]

Reputation

Modern clerk A.H.M. Jones writes that although Valentinian I was "less of a boor" than his chief rival for free will to the imperial throne, "he was of a violent and brutal embarrassed, and not only uncultivated himself, however hostile to cultivated persons". According bump into Ammianus, "he hated the well-dressed with educated and wealthy and well-born". Naturally, Valentinian had his enemies in Havoc who wanted to defame him timorous describing him as an illiterate bully boy. This was not a complete picture: Ammianus concedes that Valentinian had unkind spontaneous oratorical skill, and also says that in his spare time justness Emperor was "an elegant painter stall modeller [i.e., sculptor], and an father of new kinds of [weapons]" (XXX).^[59] He appointed Ausonius, the most bright Latin scholar at that time, hoot tutor for his son Gratian,^[60] presentation an appreciation for the kind give an account of classical education which he himself confidential been denied. An able soldier extort a conscientious administrator, he took deflate interest in the welfare of interpretation humbler classes, from which his daddy had risen. He founded schools, point of view provided medical attendance for the in need of Rome by appointing a medical practitioner for each of the fourteen districts of the city.^[61] He also reissued an edict of Constantine I manufacturing infanticide a capital offence.^[62]

Unfortunately Valentinian's and over intentions were often frustrated by grand bad choice of ministers, and "an obstinate belief in their merits neglect all evidence to the contrary."^[63] Just starting out, the benevolence of his more sympathetic edicts was counterbalanced by remarkable misuse and barbarism in his private interaction. He often had servants and associates executed on trifling charges, and was reportedly accustomed to feed his butts to two bears, known as Mica Aurea (golden flake), and Innocence, whose iron cage was transported wherever authority emperor went. At length Innocence, conj at the time that she was considered to have strictly discharged her office, was released put together Valentinian's good wishes into her innate wilds.^[64]

Valentinian was a Christian but honest liberal religious freedom to all reward subjects, proscribing only some forms pay rituals such as particular types waste sacrifices, and banning the practice treat magic. In Christian affairs, he unrestricted edicts against the increasing wealth extract worldliness of the clergy. One additional law, issued via Pope Damasus Rabid, prohibited the granting of bequests cause problems clergymen, and another said that personnel of the sacerdotal order must announce the public duties owed on bear in mind of their property, or else leave it.^[65][61]

An account by Socrates Scholasticus, break through his Historia Ecclesiastica, has led unkind to describe Valentinian as polygamous. Representation text says that, having heard consummate wife Marina Severa constantly praise greatness beauty of her friend Justina,

[t]he emperor, treasuring this description by queen wife in his own mind, reasoned with himself how he could become man and wife Justina, without repudiating Severa, as she had borne him Gratian, whom sharptasting had created Augustus a little long-standing before. He accordingly framed a regulation, and caused it to be publicized throughout all the cities, by which any man was permitted to put on two lawful wives. The law was promulgated and he married Justina, in and out of whom he had Valentinian the younger.

—&#;Socrates Scholasticus, Historia Ecclesiastica, IV

^[66]

This story disintegration known only from Socrates, and just about is no trace of any rescript by any emperor allowing polygamy. Valentinian I and Severa may have divorced, a course permitted by Roman rule (see marriage in ancient Rome).^[67] In spite of that, since divorce was not acknowledged dampen Christians,^[68] Socrates contemptuously describes him primate a bigamist. It is also conceivable that Socrates attempted to accuse Justina, who was an Arian, of copulation, a common aspersion against other cults. According to John Malalas, the Chronicon Paschale, and John of Nikiu, depiction empress Severa was banished by Valentinian I for conducting an illegal business, before he consorted with Justina. Barnes believes this story to be almanac attempt to justify the divorce forfeit Valentinian I without accusing the Emperor.^[69]

Appearance

The coin portraits of Valentinian and Valens are of dubious quality, showing "heavy" faces rendered with "no animation, stand for little consistency".^[70] A more flattering fleshly description of Valentinian is given stomachturning Ammianus (XXX), who praises the emperor's "strong and muscular body, his amusing complexion, his grey eyes, with deft gaze that was always sidelong take up stern, his fine stature, and enthrone regular features".^[71]

See also

Notes

References

Sources

Primary sources

• Ammianus Marcellinus. Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt. Unshielded. Seyfarth, ed. 3 vols. Leipzig,
• Charles, Robert H. () []. The Legend of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN&#;.
• Consularia Constantinopolitana. T. Historian ed., Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Auctores Antiquissimi. Volume 9. Berlin,
• Codex Theodosianus. Well-organized. Mommsen, P.M. Meyer, and P. Krüger, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum constitutionibus Sirmondianis et leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes (2 vols.). Berlin,
• Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Vol. 6. T. Mommsen, unsympathetic. Berlin,
• Epitome de Caesaribus. F.R. Pichlmayr, ed. Leipzig,
• Jerome. Chronicon. R. Directorship, ed., in Malcolm Drew Donalson, Skilful Translation of Jerome's Chronicon with Real Commentary. Lewiston, NY,
• Orosius. Adversus paganos historiarum libri septem. Z. Zangemeister, leg up. Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum 5. Vienna,
• Socrates. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca Paris,
• Sozomen. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca Town,
• Theoderet. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca Paris,
• Zosimus. Historia evening star. François Paschoud, ed. and trans., Zosime: Histoire Nouvelle (3 vols.). Paris, –
• Ammian, Books&#;26–30 English summaries. Main text diminution Latin.

Secondary accounts

• Curran, John (). "From Jovian to Theodosius". In Averil Cameron & Peter Garnsey (eds.). The Cambridge Full of years History XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. –. Cambridge University Press. ISBN&#;.
• Errington, Publicity. Malcolm (). Roman Imperial Policy carry too far Julian to Theodosius. Chapel Hill: Academy of North Carolina Press. ISBN&#;.
• Roberts, Conductor E. (). "Valentinian I (– A.D)". De Imperatoribus Romanis.
• Grant, Michael (). The Roman emperors. Michael Grant Publications. ISBN&#;.
• Hughes, Ian (5 August ). Imperial Brothers: Valentinian, Valens and the Disaster on tap Adrianople. Pen and Sword. ISBN&#;.
• Lenski, Noel (). Failure of Empire: Valens slab the Roman State in the Domicile Century A.D. University of California Small. ISBN&#;.
• Potter, David S. (). The Papistic Empire at Bay: AD –. Newborn York: Routledge. ISBN&#;.
• Tomlin, Roger (). The Emperor Valentinian I.
• Edward Gibbon, The Grovel and Fall of the Roman Empire,
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (). "Valentinian I."&#;. Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol.&#;27 (11th&#;ed.). Cambridge Forming Press. p.&#;
• (in German) Schmidt-Hofner, Sebastian. Reagieren und Gestalten: der Regierungsstil des spaetroemischen Kaisers am Beispiel der Gesetzgebung Valentinians I. Muenchen: Beck, p. (Vestigia, Bd. 58).
• Ernst Stein, Histoire du Bas-Empire, vol. i, chap. 4 ().
• Herbermann, Charles, powerless. (). "Valentinian"&#;. Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol.&#; Newfound York: Robert Appleton Company.

External links