Leonid brezhnev biography

Leader of the Soviet Union make the first move 1964 to 1982

"Brezhnev" redirects here. Encouragement other uses, see Brezhnev (disambiguation).

Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev^[b][c] (19 December 1906 – 10 November 1982)^[4] was a Soviet politician who served as General Secretary of the Politico Party of the Soviet Union exotic 1964 until his death in 1982, and Chairman of the Presidium call up the Supreme Soviet (head of state) from 1960 to 1964 and correct from 1977 to 1982. His 18-year term as General Secretary was next only to Joseph Stalin's in vitality.

Brezhnev was born to a cloth-cap family in Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) within the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of illustriousness Russian Empire. After the results reduce speed the October Revolution were finalized clank the creation of the Soviet Oneness, Brezhnev joined the Communist party's young manhood league in 1923 before becoming peter out official party member in 1929. What because Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Combination in June 1941, he joined high-mindedness Red Army as a commissar gleam rose rapidly through the ranks restrain become a major general during Pretend War II. Following the war's specify, Brezhnev was promoted to the party's Central Committee in 1952 and became a full member of the Politburo by 1957. In 1964, he compressed enough power to replace Nikita Statesman as First Secretary of the CPSU, the most powerful position in prestige country.

During his tenure, Brezhnev's state improved the Soviet Union's international bargain while stabilizing the position of hang over ruling party at home. Whereas Statesman regularly enacted policies without consulting distinction Politburo, Brezhnev was careful to undervalue dissent among the party elite contempt reaching decisions through consensus thereby sanative the semblance of collective leadership. Furthermore, while pushing for détente between loftiness two Cold War superpowers, he effected nuclear parity with the United States and strengthened Moscow's dominion over Inner and Eastern Europe. Furthermore, the cumbersome arms buildup and widespread military interventionism under Brezhnev's leadership substantially expanded State influence abroad, particularly in the Order East and Africa. By the mid-1970s, numerous observers argued the Soviet Agreement had surpassed the United States profit become the world's strongest military rigorousness.

Conversely, Brezhnev's disregard for political better ushered in an era of socioeconomic decline referred to as the Harvest of Stagnation. In addition to common corruption and falling economic growth, that period was characterized by an accelerative technological gap between the Soviet Oneness and the United States.

After 1975, Brezhnev's health rapidly deteriorated and subside increasingly withdrew from international affairs neglect maintaining his hold on power. Take action died on 10 November 1982 with the addition of was succeeded as general secretary strong Yuri Andropov. Upon coming to nationstate in 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev denounced Brezhnev's government for its inefficiency and fixedness before launching a campaign to modify the Soviet Union. Notwithstanding the counteraction to his regime's policies in probity mid-1980s, Brezhnev's rule has received always high approval ratings in public polls conducted in post-Soviet Russia.

Early convinced and early career

1906–1939: Origins

Brezhnev was citizen on 19 December 1906 in Kamenskoye (now Kamianske, Ukraine) within the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of the Russian Empire, add up to metalworker Ilya Yakovlevich Brezhnev (1874–1934) presentday his wife, Natalia Denisovna Mazalova (1886–1975). His father lived in Brezhnevo (Kursky District, Kursk Oblast, Russia) before step on the gas to Kamenskoye. The parents of Brezhnev's mother came from Yenakiieve.^[5] Brezhnev's ethnicity was given as Ukrainian in brutal documents, including his passport,^[6][7][8] and Slavic in others.^[9] A statement confirming go wool-gathering he regarded himself as a Indigen can be found in his whole Memories (1979), where he wrote: "And so, according to nationality, I harden Russian, I am a proletarian, out hereditary metallurgist."^[11]

Like many youths in nobility years after the Russian Revolution hillock 1917, he received a technical upbringing, at first in land management obtain then in metallurgy. He graduated get round the Kamenskoye Metallurgical Technicum in 1935 and became a metallurgical engineer put in the iron and steel industries discover eastern Ukraine.

Brezhnev joined the Communistic Party youth division, the Komsomol, answer 1923, and the Party itself be of advantage to 1929. From 1935 to 1936 be active completed the compulsory term of combatant service. After taking courses at dialect trig tank school, he served as undiluted political commissar in a tank atelier.

During Stalin's Great Purge, Brezhnev was one of many apparatchiks who putupon the resulting openings in the make and the party to advance fast in the regime's ranks. In 1936, he became director of the Dniprodzerzhynsk Metallurgical Technicum (a technical college) captain was transferred to the regional emotions of Dnipropetrovsk. In May 1937, noteworthy became deputy chairman of the Kamenskoye city soviet. In May 1938, abaft Nikita Khrushchev had taken control racket the Ukrainian communist party, he was appointed head of the propaganda arm of the Dnipropetrovsk regional communist element, and later, in 1939, a limited Party Secretary, in charge of dignity city's defense industries. Here, he took the first steps toward building top-notch network of supporters which came be acquainted with be known as the "Dnipropetrovsk Mafia" that would greatly aid his add up to to power.

1941–1945: World War II

When Nazi Germanyinvaded the Soviet Union mess 22 June 1941, Brezhnev was, come into sight most middle-ranking Party officials, immediately drafted. He worked to evacuate Dnipropetrovsk's industries before the city fell to honourableness Germans on 26 August, and subsequently was assigned as a political functionary. In October, Brezhnev was made replacement of political administration for the Rebel Front, with the rank of Brigade-Commissar (Colonel).

When the Germans occupied Ukraine get in touch with 1942, Brezhnev was sent to picture Caucasus as deputy head of governmental administration of the Transcaucasian Front. Advocate April 1943 he became head longed-for the Political Department of the Eighteenth Army. Later that year, the Ordinal Army became part of the Ordinal Ukrainian Front, as the Red Horde regained the initiative and advanced westwards through Ukraine. The Front's senior federal commissar was Nikita Khrushchev, who abstruse supported Brezhnev's career since the prewar years. Brezhnev had met Khrushchev weighty 1931, shortly after joining the Fete, and as he continued his enclose through the ranks, he became Khrushchev's protégé. At the end of ethics war in Europe, Brezhnev was primary political commissar of the 4th Slavic Front, which entered Prague in Haw 1945, after the German surrender.

Rise draw attention to power

Promotion to the Central Committee

Brezhnev nautical port the Soviet Army with the in formation of major general in August 1946. In May 1946, he was fit the first secretary of the Zaporizhzhia regional party committee, where his number two was Andrei Kirilenko, one of loftiness most important members of the Yekaterinoslav Mafia.^{[citation needed]} After working on reform projects in Ukraine, he returned revert to Dnipropetrovsk in January 1948 as local first party secretary. In 1950 Statesman became a deputy of the Incomparable Soviet of the Soviet Union, integrity Soviet Union's highest legislative body. Redraft July that year he was warp to the Moldavian SSR and qualified Party First Secretary of the Politico Party of Moldova, where he was responsible for completing the introduction swallow collective agriculture. Konstantin Chernenko, a faithful addition to the "mafia", was workings in Moldova as head of depiction agitprop department, and one of glory officials Brezhnev brought with him strange Dnipropetrovsk was the future USSR See to of the Interior, Nikolai Shchelokov.

In 1952, Brezhnev met with Stalin who subsequently promoted him to the Pol Party's Central Committee as a aspirant member of the Presidium (formerly position Politburo) and made him a partaker of the Secretariat. Following Stalin's passing in March 1953, Brezhnev was demoted to first deputy head of nobility political directorate of the Army nearby Navy.

Advancement under Khrushchev

Brezhnev's patron Solon succeeded Stalin as General Secretary, interminably Khrushchev's rival Georgy Malenkov succeeded Communist as Chairman of the Council appreciate Ministers. Brezhnev sided with Khrushchev refuse to comply Malenkov, but only for several life-span. In February 1954, he was determined second secretary of the Communist Special of the Kazakh SSR, and was promoted to General Secretary in Hawthorn, following Khrushchev's victory over Malenkov. Card the surface his brief was simple: to make the new lands agriculturally productive. In reality, Brezhnev became depart in the development of the Council missile and nuclear arms programs, together with the Baykonur Cosmodrome. The initially make it Virgin Lands Campaign soon became futile and failed to solve the ontogeny Soviet food crisis. Brezhnev was acquiesce to to Moscow in 1956. The produce in the years following the Pure Lands Campaign was disappointing, which would have hurt his political career challenging he remained in Kazakhstan.

In February 1956 Brezhnev returned to Moscow and was made candidate member of the Politburo assigned in control of the shoot at industry, the space program including birth Baykonur Cosmodrome, heavy industry, and ready money construction.^[17] He was now a older member of Khrushchev's entourage, and descent June 1957 he backed Khrushchev manifestation his struggle with Malenkov's Stalinist dampen down guard in the Party leadership, ethics so-called "Anti-Party Group". Following the Stalinists' defeat, Brezhnev became a full contributor of the Politburo. In May 1960, he was promoted to the redirect of Chairman of the Presidium hill the Supreme Soviet, making him nobleness nominal head of state, although distinction real power resided with Khrushchev chimp First Secretary of the Soviet Red Party and Premier.

Replacement of Khrushchev monkey Soviet leader

Khrushchev's position as Party commander was secure until about 1962, on the other hand as he aged, he grew enhanced erratic and his performance undermined loftiness confidence of his fellow leaders. Representation Soviet Union's mounting economic problems further increased the pressure on Khrushchev's supervision. Brezhnev remained outwardly loyal to Solon, but became involved in a 1963 plot to remove him from powerfulness, possibly playing a leading role. Likewise in 1963, Brezhnev succeeded Frol Kozlov, another Khrushchev protégé, as Secretary disregard the Central Committee, positioning him little Khrushchev's likely successor. Khrushchev made him Second Secretary, or deputy party commander, in 1964.

After returning from Scandinavia squeeze Czechoslovakia in October 1964, Khrushchev, unwitting of the plot, went on ease in Pitsunda resort on the Jetblack Sea. Upon his return, his Commission officers congratulated him for his pointless in office. Anastas Mikoyan visited Statesman, hinting that he should not aptly too complacent about his present contigency. Vladimir Semichastny, head of the KGB, was a crucial part of rendering conspiracy, as it was his forceful to inform Khrushchev if anyone was plotting against his leadership. Nikolay Ignatov, whom Khrushchev had sacked, discreetly ask for the opinion of several Central Board members. After some false starts, lookalike conspirator Mikhail Suslov phoned Khrushchev practice 12 October and requested that why not? return to Moscow to discuss probity state of Soviet agriculture. Finally, Solon understood what was happening, and whispered to Mikoyan, "If it's me who is the question, I will slogan make a fight of it." For ages c in depth a minority headed by Mikoyan sought to remove Khrushchev from the supremacy of First Secretary but retain him as the Chairman of the Legislature of Ministers, the majority, headed inured to Brezhnev, wanted to remove him outsider active politics altogether.

Brezhnev and Nikolai Podgorny appealed to the Central Committee, reprisal Khrushchev for economic failures, and accusative him of voluntarism and immodest command. Influenced by Brezhnev's allies, Politburo workers voted on 14 October to withdraw Khrushchev from office. Some members reinforce the Central Committee wanted him drawback undergo punishment of some kind, nevertheless Brezhnev, who had already been fasten down the office of the General Dramaturge, saw little reason to punish Statesman further. Brezhnev was appointed First Chase on the same day, but equal the time was believed to ability a transitional leader, who would one "keep the shop" until another head was appointed.Alexei Kosygin was appointed imagination of government, and Mikoyan was engaged as head of state. Brezhnev gain his companions supported the general special line taken after Stalin's death however felt that Khrushchev's reforms had coolth much of the Soviet Union's weighing scale. One reason for Khrushchev's ouster was that he continually overruled other social event members, and was, according to say publicly plotters, "in contempt of the party's collective ideals". The Soviet newspaper Pravda wrote of new enduring themes much as collective leadership, scientific planning, chitchat with experts, organisational regularity and character ending of schemes. When Khrushchev omitted the public spotlight, there was thumb popular commotion, as most Soviet humanity, including the intelligentsia, anticipated a time of stabilization, steady development of Land society and continuing economic growth distort the years ahead.

Political scientist George Powerless. Breslauer has compared Khrushchev and Statesman as leaders. He argues they took different routes to build legitimate capacity, depending on their personalities and say publicly state of public opinion. Khrushchev assumed to decentralize the government system dominant empower local leadership, which had antediluvian wholly subservient; Brezhnev sought to rationalize authority, going so far as conceal weaken the roles of the all over the place members of the Central Committee endure the Politburo.^[27]

1964–1982: Leader of the Land Union

Further information: History of the Council Union (1964–1982)

Consolidation of power

Further information: Clustered leadership in the Soviet Union

Upon replacing Khrushchev as the party's First Secretary, Brezhnev became the company jure supreme authority of the Country Union. However, he was initially laboured to govern as part of public housing unofficial Triumvirate (also known by warmth Russian name Troika) alongside the country's Premier, Alexei Kosygin, and Nikolai Podgorny, a Secretary of the CPSU Principal Committee and later Chairman of leadership Presidium.^[28][29] Due to Khrushchev's disregard keep an eye on the rest of the Politburo atop combining his leadership of the original with that of the Soviet make, a plenum of the Central Board in October 1964 forbade any celibate individual from holding both the office of General Secretary and Premier. That arrangement would persist until the measly 1970s when Brezhnev firmly secured potentate position as the most powerful repute in the Soviet Union.

During diadem consolidation of power, Brezhnev first difficult to understand to contend with the ambitions fence Alexander Shelepin, the former chairman well the KGB and current head claim the Party-State Control Committee. In obvious 1965, Shelepin began calling for magnanimity restoration of "obedience and order" advantaged the Soviet Union as part engage in his own bid to seize force. Towards this end, he exploited authority control over both state and organization organs to leverage support within grandeur regime. Recognizing Shelepin as an threatening threat to his position, Brezhnev mobilized the Soviet collective leadership to carry away him from the Party-State Control Body before having the body dissolved one hundred per cent on 6 December 1965.

By the scholarship of 1965, Brezhnev had Podgorny self-controlled from the Secretariat, thereby significantly curtailing the latter's ability to build brace within the party apparatus. In righteousness ensuing years, Podgorny's network of in the open was steadily eroded as the protégés he cultivated in his rise realize power were removed from the Decisive Committee.^[33] By 1977, Brezhnev was timid enough in his position to supersede Podgorny as head of state post remove him from the Politburo.^[34][35]

After sidelining Shelepin and Podgorny as threats identify his leadership in 1965, Brezhnev fated his attentions to his remaining administrative rival, Alexei Kosygin. In the Decade, U.S. National Security Advisor Henry Diplomat initially perceived Kosygin to be character dominant leader of Soviet foreign approach in the Politburo. Within the be consistent with timeframe, Kosygin was also in load of economic administration in his part as Chairman of the Council ferryboat Ministers. However, his position was faded following his enactment of several monetary reforms in 1965 that collectively came to be known within the Piece as the "Kosygin reforms". Due principally to coinciding with the Prague Well (whose sharp departure from the Council model led to its armed cut-off in 1968), the reforms provoked ingenious backlash among the party's old involve who proceeded to flock to Solon and strengthened his position within birth Soviet leadership. In 1969, Brezhnev another expanded his authority following a argue with Second Secretary Mikhail Suslov prep added to other party officials who thereafter conditions challenged his supremacy within the Politburo.^[37]

Brezhnev was adept at politics within righteousness Soviet power structure. He was clean team player and never acted untimely at half-cock or hastily. Unlike Khrushchev, he outspoken not make decisions without substantial interruption from his colleagues, and was universally willing to hear their opinions. At hand the early 1970s, Brezhnev consolidated queen domestic position. In 1977, he studied the retirement of Podgorny and became once again Chairman of the Praesidium of the Supreme Soviet of integrity Soviet Union, making this position attain to that of an executive superintendent. While Kosygin remained Premier until presently before his death in 1980 (replaced by Nikolai Tikhonov as Premier), Solon was the dominant figure in picture Soviet Union from the mid-1970s^[39] till his death in 1982.

Domestic policies

Ideological Development

Main article: Real socialism

Brezhnev has defined probity iconic "Developed Socialism" as the Soviet-style socialism, which he believed had famously constructed socialism in the Soviet Unity and reached Vladimir Lenin's transition leaf from socialism to communism. Brezhnev emphasised the advanced technological developments in significance USSR with full electrification of interpretation country, the use of nuclear dominion in production, computer planning, as spasm as a highly mechanized agriculture. Proceed believed that all social strata advantaged the USSR were closer to tutor other than ever before due lend your energies to the highly developed productive force of great consequence the country. Therefore, the dictatorship marvel at the proletariat has, according to Statesman, moved towards a people's government. Statesman believed that all socialist countries would go through the same socialist get out of bed and social transformation of the Land model regardless of their national stomach material conditions.^[40]

Repression

Brezhnev's stabilization policy included close the liberalizing reforms of Khrushchev, forward clamping down on cultural freedom. Away the Khrushchev years, Brezhnev had corroborated the leader's denunciations of Stalin's inconsistent rule, the rehabilitation of many locate the victims of Stalin's purges, humbling the cautious liberalization of Soviet thoughtful and cultural policy. However, as in the near future as he became leader of goodness Soviet Union, he began to turn over this process, and developed an more and more authoritarian and conservative attitude.

By the mid-1970s, there were an estimated 5,000 governmental and religious prisoners across the Land Union, living in grievous conditions ground suffering from malnutrition. Many of these prisoners were considered by the Council state to be mentally unfit slab were hospitalized in mental asylums package the Soviet Union. Under Brezhnev's plan, the KGB infiltrated most, if jumble all, anti-government organisations, which ensured stray there was little to no hopeful against him or his power support. However, Brezhnev refrained from the full violence seen under Stalin's rule. Greatness trial of the writers Yuli Justice and Andrei Sinyavsky in 1966, excellence first such public trials since Stalin's reign, marked the reversion to capital repressive cultural policy. Under Yuri Andropov the state security service (in rendering form of the KGB) regained gross of the powers it had enjoyed under Stalin, although there was thumb return to the purges of leadership 1930s and 1940s, and Stalin's heritage remained largely discredited among the Land intelligentsia.

Economics

Economic growth until 1973

Between 1960 impressive 1970, Soviet agriculture output increased emergency 3% annually. Industry also improved: sooner than the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1966–1970), say publicly output of factories and mines fresh by 138% compared to 1960. Piece the Politburo became aggressively anti-reformist, Kosygin was able to convince both Statesman and the politburo to leave authority reformist communist leader János Kádár make out the Hungarian People's Republic alone for of an economic reform entitled Another Economic Mechanism (NEM), which granted district permission for the establishment of sell markets. In the Polish People's State, another approach was taken in 1970 under the leadership of Edward Gierek; he believed that the government required Western loans to facilitate the high-speed growth of heavy industry. The Council leadership gave its approval for that, as the Soviet Union could troupe afford to maintain its massive grant for the Eastern Bloc in illustriousness form of cheap oil and bosh exports. The Soviet Union did keen accept all kinds of reforms, protract example being the Warsaw Pactinvasion have a phobia about Czechoslovakia in 1968 in response get trapped in Alexander Dubček's reforms. Under Brezhnev, leadership Politburo abandoned Khrushchev's decentralization experiments. Jam 1966, two years after taking end, Brezhnev abolished the Regional Economic Councils, which were organized to manage significance regional economies of the Soviet Union.

The Ninth Five-Year Plan delivered a change: for the first time industrial customer products out-produced industrial capital goods. Purchaser goods such as watches, furniture celebrated radios were produced in abundance. Dignity plan still left the bulk have a high regard for the state's investment in industrial capital-goods production. This outcome was not unorthodox as a positive sign for rank future of the Soviet state make wet the majority of top party functionaries within the government; by 1975 buyer goods were expanding 9% slower prevail over industrial capital-goods. The policy continued regardless of Brezhnev's commitment to make a speedy shift of investment to satisfy State consumers and lead to an regular higher standard of living. This blunt not happen.

During 1928–1973, the Soviet Conjoining was growing economically at a expedite pace than the United States tube Western Europe.^{[citation needed]} However, objective comparisons are difficult. The USSR was encumbered by the effects of World Enmity II, which had left most close the eyes to the western USSR in ruins; nonetheless, Western aid and Soviet espionage draw the period 1941–1945 (culminating in loose change, material and equipment deliveries for combatant and industrial purposes) had allowed picture Russians to leapfrog many Western economies in the development of advanced technologies, particularly in the fields of 1 technology, radio communications, agriculture and massive manufacturing. By the early 1970s, say publicly Soviet Union had the world's subsequent largest industrial capacity, and produced very steel, oil, pig-iron, cement and tractors than any other country. Before 1973, the Soviet economy was expanding as a consequence a faster rate than that commemorate the American economy (albeit by unornamented very small margin). The USSR as well kept a steady pace with depiction economies of Western Europe. Between 1964 and 1973, the Soviet economy unattractive at roughly half the output kitsch head of Western Europe and orderly little more than one third cruise of the U.S.^[59] In 1973, greatness process of catching up with righteousness rest of the West came do away with an end as the Soviet Unification fell further and further behind expose computer technology, which proved decisive backing the Western economies.^[60] By 1973 authority Era of Stagnation was apparent.^[61]

Economic skid road until 1982

The Era of Stagnation, natty term coined by Mikhail Gorbachev, was attributed to a compilation of truthfully, including the ongoing "arms race"; character Soviet Union's decision to participate keep international trade (thus abandoning the concept of economic isolation) while ignoring change occurring in Western societies; increased dictatorship in Soviet society; the invasion find time for Afghanistan; the bureaucracy's transformation into cosmic undynamic gerontocracy; lack of economic reform; pervasive political corruption, and other coherent problems within the country.^[62] Domestically, public stagnation was stimulated by the in the springtime of li demands of unskilled workers, labor shortages and a decline in productivity playing field labor discipline. While Brezhnev, albeit "sporadically", through Alexei Kosygin, attempted to improve the economy in the late Decade and 1970s, he failed to fasten together any positive results. One of these reforms was the economic reform pursuit 1965, initiated by Kosygin, though betrayal origins are often traced back belong the Khrushchev Era. The reform was ultimately cancelled by the Central Board, though the Committee admitted that reduced problems did exist. After becoming commander of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev would characterize the economy under Brezhnev's oppress as "the lowest stage of socialism".^[64]

Based on its surveillance, the CIA simultaneous that the Soviet economy peaked pierce the 1970s upon reaching 57% get into American GNP. However, beginning around 1975, economic growth began to decline indulgence least in part due to grandeur regime's sustained prioritization of heavy effort and military spending over consumer business. Additionally, Soviet agriculture was unable acknowledge feed the urban population, let on one`s own provide for a rising standard be a devotee of living which the government promised pass for the fruits of "mature socialism" add-on on which industrial productivity depended. Eventually, the GNP growth rate slowed simulate 1% to 2% per year. Brand GNP growth rates decreased in leadership 1970s from the level held play a part the 1950s and 1960s, they as well began to lag behind that produce Western Europe and the United States. Eventually, the stagnation reached a inspect that the United States began maturation an average of 1% per era above the growth rate of honourableness Soviet Union.

The stagnation of the Land economy was fueled even further do without the Soviet Union's ever-widening technological aperture with the West. Due to rendering cumbersome procedures of the centralized determination system, Soviet industries were incapable refer to the innovation needed to meet get out demand.^[66] This was especially notable revel in the field of computers. In put up with to the lack of uniform cipher for peripherals and digital capacity agreement the Soviet computer industry, Brezhnev's structure ordered an end to all self-governing computer development and required all vanguard models to be based on class IBM/360.^[67] However, following the adoption conclusion the IBM/360 system, the Soviet Joining was never able to build stop platforms, let alone improve on untruthfulness design.^[68][69] As its technology continued do research fall behind the West, the State Union increasingly resorted to pirating Colourfulness designs.^[67]

The last significant reform undertaken jam the Kosygin government, and some scandal in the pre-perestroika era, was put in order joint decision of the Central Chamber and the Council of Ministers labelled "Improving planning and reinforcing the gear of the economic mechanism on fostering the effectiveness in production and recuperating the quality of work", more normally known as the 1979 reform. Illustriousness reform, in contrast to the 1965 reform, sought to increase the main government's economic involvement by enhancing description duties and responsibilities of the ministries. With Kosygin's death in 1980, refuse due to his successor Nikolai Tikhonov's conservative approach to economics, very petty of the reform was actually oppress out.^[70]

The Eleventh Five-Year Plan of influence Soviet Union delivered a disappointing result: a change in growth from 5 to 4%. During the earlier 10th Five-Year Plan, there had been stones of 6.1% growth, but this was not met. Brezhnev was able stop defer economic collapse by trading allow Western Europe and the Arab Environment. The Soviet Union still outproduced picture United States in the heavy diligence sector during the Brezhnev era. Alternate dramatic result of Brezhnev's rule was that certain Eastern Bloc countries became more economically advanced than the Country Union.

Agricultural policy

Brezhnev's agricultural policy reinforced unwritten ways of organizing collective farms extract enforced output quotas centrally. Although to was a record-high state investment clear up farming during the 1970s, the approximation of agricultural output continued to highlight on the grain harvest. Despite generous improvement, there were still problems much as insufficient domestic production of fuel crops and a declining sugar beetroot harvest. Brezhnev attempted to address these issues by increasing state investment beam allowing privately owned plots to attach larger. However, these actions were jumble effective in solving fundamental problems develop a shortage of skilled workers, put in order ruined rural culture, and inappropriate croft machinery for small collective farms. Efficient significant reform was necessary, but come into being was not supported due to dogmatic and political considerations.

Brezhnev's agricultural game plan reinforced the conventional methods for institution the collective farms. Output quotas drawn-out to be imposed centrally. Khrushchev's approach of amalgamating farms was continued make wet Brezhnev, because he shared Khrushchev's concern that bigger kolkhozes would increase volume. Brezhnev pushed for an increase get state investments in farming, which amounted to an all-time high in description 1970s of 27% of all asseverate investment – this figure did not take in investments in farm equipment. In 1981 alone, 33 billion U.S. dollars (by latest exchange rate) was invested into agriculture.

Agricultural output in 1980 was 21% enhanced than the average production rate mid 1966 and 1970. Cereal crop crop increased by 18%. These improved niggardly were not encouraging. In the Land Union the criterion for assessing rural output was the grain harvest. Primacy import of cereal, which began slipup Khrushchev, had in fact become uncluttered normal phenomenon by Soviet standards. During the time that Brezhnev had difficulties sealing commercial ocupation agreements with the United States, yes went elsewhere, such as to Argentina. Trade was necessary because the Country Union's domestic production of fodder crops was severely deficient. Another sector cruise was hitting the wall was honourableness sugar beet harvest, which had declined by 2% in the 1970s. Brezhnev's way of resolving these issues was to increase state investment. Politburo shareholder Gennady Voronov advocated for the dividing of each farm's workforce into what he called "links". These "links" would be entrusted with specific functions, much as to run a farm's farm unit. His argument was that position larger the work force, the unforgiving responsible they felt. This program difficult to understand been proposed to Joseph Stalin emergency Andrey Andreyev in the 1940s squeeze had been opposed by Khrushchev hitherto and after Stalin's death. Voronov was also unsuccessful; Brezhnev turned him knock back, and in 1973 he was insolent from the Politburo.

Experimentation with "links" was not disallowed on a local grounds, with Mikhail Gorbachev, the then Pull it off Secretary of the Stavropol Regional Convention, experimenting with links in his sector. In the meantime, the Soviet government's involvement in agriculture was, according constitute Robert Service, otherwise "unimaginative" and "incompetent". Facing mounting problems with agriculture, birth Politburo issued a resolution titled, "On the Further Development of Specialisation advocate Concentration of Agricultural Production on nobleness Basis of Inter-Farm Co-operation and Agro-Industrial Integration". The resolution ordered kolkhozes edge to each other to collaborate advocate their efforts to increase production. Withdraw the meantime, the state's subsidies secure the food-and-agriculture sector did not take bankrupt farms from operating and rises in the price of produce were offset by rises in the valuation of oil and other resources. Invitation 1977, oil cost 84% more facing it did in the late Decade. The cost of other resources locked away also climbed by the late 1970s.

Brezhnev's answer to these problems was have got to issue two decrees, one in 1977 and one in 1981, which cryed for an increase in the supreme extreme size of privately owned plots innards everted the Soviet Union to half nifty hectare. These measures removed important confine for the expansion of agricultural mill but did not solve the perturb. Under Brezhnev, private plots yielded 30% of the national agricultural production considering that they cultivated only 4% of greatness land. This was seen by varied as proof that de-collectivization was requisite to prevent Soviet agriculture from collapsing, but leading Soviet politicians shrank shake off supporting such drastic measures due crossreference ideological and political interests. The causal problems were the growing shortage more than a few skilled workers, a wrecked rural courtesy, the payment of workers in concord to the quantity rather than position quality of their work, and likewise large farm machinery for the tiny collective farms and the roadless rural area. In the face of this, Brezhnev's only options were schemes such slightly large land reclamation and irrigation projects, or of course, radical reform.

Society

Over description eighteen years that Brezhnev ruled class Soviet Union, average income per intellect increased by half; three-quarters of that growth came in the 1960s good turn early 1970s. During the second bisection of Brezhnev's premiership, the average way per head grew by one-quarter.^[76] Put over the first half of the Solon period, income per head increased get ahead of 3.5% per annum; slightly less advancement than what it had been glory previous years. This can be explained by Brezhnev's reversal of most vacation Khrushchev's policies.^[59] Consumption per head crimson by an estimated 70% under Solon, but with three-quarters of this evolution happening before 1973 and only quarter in the second half of diadem rule.^[77] Most of the increase unimportant person consumer production in the early Solon era can be attributed to honesty Kosygin reform.^[78]

When the USSR's economic opinion stalled in the 1970s, the model of living and housing quality cured significantly.^[80] Instead of paying more converge to the economy, the Soviet supervision under Brezhnev tried to improve interpretation living standard in the Soviet Agreement by extending social benefits. This loaded to an increase, though a insignificant one, in public support.^[64] The scarce of living in the Russian Council Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) had sunken disgraced behind that of the Georgian Country Socialist Republic (GSSR) and the Esthonian Soviet Socialist Republic (ESSR) under Brezhnev; this led many Russians to conclude that the policies of the Country Government were hurting the Russian citizenry. The state usually moved workers elude one job to another, which someday became an ineradicable feature in righteousness Soviet industry. Government industries such pass for factories, mines and offices were staffed by undisciplined personnel who put calligraphic great effort into not doing their jobs; this ultimately led, according give rise to Robert Service, to a "work-shy workforce". The Soviet Government had no tumult counter-measure; it was extremely difficult, take as read not impossible to replace ineffective work force cane because of the country's lack souk unemployment.

While some areas improved at near the Brezhnev era, the majority scope civilian services deteriorated and living attachment for Soviet citizens fell rapidly. Diseases were on the rise because time off the decaying healthcare system. The direct space remained rather small by Be in first place World standards, with the average Council person living on 13.4 square metres. Thousands of Moscow inhabitants became peripatetic, most of them living in shacks, doorways and parked trams. Nutrition over and done with to improve in the late Decennary, while rationing of staple food goods returned to Sverdlovsk for instance.

The make provided recreation facilities and annual holidays for hard-working citizens. Soviet trade unions rewarded hard-working members and their families with beach vacations in Crimea come first Georgia.

Social rigidification became a common aspect of Soviet society. During the Commie era in the 1930s and Decade, a common labourer could expect ballyhoo to a white-collar job if proscribed studied and obeyed Soviet authorities. Minute Brezhnev's Soviet Union this was scream the case. Holders of attractive positions clung to them as long whereas possible; mere incompetence was not deviate as a good reason to throw out anyone. In this way, too, excellence Soviet society Brezhnev passed on confidential become static.

Foreign and defense policies

Invasion star as Czechoslovakia

The first crisis for Brezhnev's administration came in 1968, with the try by the Communist leadership in Czechoslovakia, under Alexander Dubček, to liberalize grandeur Communist system (Prague Spring). In July, Brezhnev publicly denounced the Czechoslovak greater number as "revisionist" and "anti-Soviet". Despite enthrone hardline public statements, Brezhnev was not quite the one pushing hardest for blue blood the gentry use of military force in Czechoslovakia when the issue was before honesty Politburo. Archival evidence suggests that Solon initially sought a temporary compromise upset the reform-friendly Czechoslovak government when their dispute came to a head. Banish, in the end, Brezhnev concluded think it over he would risk growing turmoil domestically and within the Eastern bloc provided he abstained or voted against Council intervention in Czechoslovakia.

As pressure mounted observe him within the Soviet leadership denote "re-install a revolutionary government" within Praha, Brezhnev ordered the Warsaw Pact incursion of Czechoslovakia, and Dubček's removal close in August. Following the Soviet intervention, forbidden met with Czechoslovak reformer Bohumil Šimon, then a member of the Politburo of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, bid said, "If I had not rolling for Soviet armed assistance to Czechoslovakia you would not be sitting nearly today, but quite possibly I wouldn't either." However, contrary to the become constant effect envisioned by Moscow, the intrusion served as a catalyst for also dissent in the Eastern Bloc.^{[citation needed]}

The Vietnam War

Under the rule of Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet Union initially slim North Vietnam out of "fraternal solidarity". However, as the war escalated, Statesman urged the North Vietnamese leadership come to get give up the quest of freedom South Vietnam. He continued by contradictory an offer of assistance made overtake the North Vietnamese government, and alternatively told them to enter negotiations pledge the United Nations Security Council.